You can observe them at work in any TV talk show: they are the "traps of logic", the professional persuaders, like politicians, they use to undermine the arguments of others, especially in the public eye (the real recipient of the scam). Better know how to identify, to avoid to fall for it. In this gallery we present the main. If your goal is not to convince, but to "win" an argument, you can also use them to your advantage.

Convincing betting statistics that some random events will occur because "statistically" should be so.

False causes Assume that because two events have occurred together or in sequence, one has to be the cause of the other.

Special Exceptions If a claim proves false, or a test event the opposite of what is claimed, saying that these are exceptions.

White or black Presenting only two possible solutions to a problem, irreconcilable, hiding the existence of third ways.

Prejudice on the origins To judge a thing or a person's "right or wrong" based on its origins or context from which it comes.

circular arguments support the truth of a thing because that thing is given as surely true: "The prof. Smith is right. It is written in his book. "

mined questions Make a question that contains a false or offensive to the opponent, to force him to get in the defense.

Effect bandwagon convince of the need to do something simply because they do it in many, and "many" are always right.

Stating appeal to authority to their advantage, in the absence of other arguments, the opinion of someone in authority like indisputable.

Arousing emotions appeal to other people's emotions (anger, grief, compassion, pride) and take the opportunity to state their beliefs.

double devaluation Stating that, since one of the other reasons is less strong or contains an error, also the rest is false or worthless.

A part for the whole Assuming that what is true for one part of a complex issue has to be true for everything else.

leverage Anecdotes Citing personal experience or an isolated event to invalidate the reasons of others, especially if supported by statistics.

manipulate data Presenting statistical data sets inventing causal connections favorable to what you want to support

ambiguous terms Use words from the double meaning or ambiguous expressions to falsely represent reality.

Disbelief To argue that because something is hard to understand for a "normal person", must necessarily be false.

the burden of proof Saying something and challenge each other to prove the falsity. But the burden of proof is always in those states, not the listener.

For PERSONAM Attach the character and the personality traits (even physical) of your opponent instead of responding to its arguments.

To say no brakes Fall that if you allow that to happen, then it will happen as a result also B, then C, D ... to Revelation.

APPEAL TO Assume nature that because a thing is "natural", this is therefore also valid, justified, inevitable or ideal.

Appeals to the purity Pulling into question the "purity": "All Neapolitans love to sing." "I'm in Naples and do not sing." "You're not a real Neapolitan".

tu quoque! You too! Do not deal with the arguments of a critical accusing those who made it had made the same mistakes.

puppet opponent Present opponent's positions and exaggerating estremizzandole, to look at the most reasonable comparison.

the truth lies somewhere in between that support the compromise, the midpoint between two reasons, it's the truth ... It is false: the truth is where he is.

From Focus